Land

Turkey is about 300,000 square miles (780,000 square kilometers) in area. About 97 percent of this area lies in Asia and about 3 percent in Europe. The Asian part of the country is mainly a long peninsula, bounded on the north by the Black Sea and on the south by the Mediterranean. In the southeast it borders Syria and Iraq, in the east Iran, and in the northeast Georgia and Armenia. The European part of Turkey borders Greece and Bulgaria.

Turkey is traditionally divided into two main provinces. Turkey in Asia is known as Anatolia, or Asia Minor, while Turkey in Europe is called Trakya, or Thrace. Most of Anatolia consists of a large plateau, or raised flat area. This Anatolian Plateau rises from about 2,000 feet (600 meters) in the west to more than 6,500 feet (1,800 meters) in the east. It is bounded on the north by the Pontic Mountains, which stretch along the Black Sea coast, and in the south by the higher ranges of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus Mountains. The latter reach their highest point on Erciyas DaGi at 12,851 feet (3,917 meters). The plateau slopes in the west to the Aegean Sea and becomes a region of small hills and valleys. In the east the Pontic and Taurus mountains meet in a complex group of mountain ranges that contain the highest mountain in Turkey, Mount Ararat, at 16,853 feet (5,137 meters).

Apart from the areas of flat land on top of the plateau and along the coasts, there are few extensive lowlands. The coast of the Black Sea has only a narrow plain. In the south the Mediterranean coastal plain is wider in places, notably along the Gulf of Antalya and the Gulf of Iskenderun. The latter, known as the Cilician Plain, is reached from the plateau by a pass through the Taurus Mountains called the Cilician Gates. In the west there are scattered areas of lowlands intermixed with hills. Although there are no active volcanoes in Turkey, much of the country is geologically unstable, and severe earthquakes have occurred.

The longest river is the Kizilirmak. It is 734 miles (1,181 kilometers) long and flows into the Black Sea, as do the Sakarya and the Yeil Irmak. The Gediz and Menderes rivers flow westward to the Aegean Sea, and the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers flow southward into the Gulf of Iskenderun. The two great rivers of Iraq, the Tigris and the Euphrates, both begin in the heart of eastern Turkey and flow to the southern border. Turkish rivers are often low in summer and of little use for navigation. Some have been dammed to provide water for irrigation.

In the center of the plateau there is a large salt lake, Tuz Lake, which dries up in summer. There are several other lakes, of which Lake Van, near the eastern border, is the largest.

Turkey in Europe is bounded on the north and south by mountain ranges. Between these two ranges lies the valley of the Ergene River. The Maritsa River forms part of the boundary between Turkey and Bulgaria. The European and Asian parts of Turkey are separated by the two straits known as the Bosporus in the north and the Dardanelles in the south. Between the two lies the Sea of Marmara.

Turkey has a variety of mineral resources. The most important deposits are located along the lower slopes of the Pontic and Taurus mountains. High-quality coal is mainly found in the region near Zonguldak on the western Black Sea coast. Lignite, an inferior type of coal, is found in Turkey in Europe and in western Anatolia. It is mainly used to produce electric power. Small amounts of petroleum are produced in Turkey. Some comes from southeastern Anatolia near Adana, but the main oilfields are in the east along the Tigris River.

Turkey is particularly rich in metallic minerals such as iron ore, chrome, copper, lead, zinc, and manganese. Most of the iron ore comes from central Anatolia and is of good quality. Turkey is one of the world's largest producers of boron, which is used in the chemical industry. It is found in western Anatolia. Other minerals of importance are antimony, magnesite, bauxite, mercury, sulfur, tungsten, and asbestos.

There are several hydroelectric power stations on the major rivers, of which the largest is the Keban Dam on the Euphrates. More than half of the electricity produced in Turkey comes from water power.

The climate of Turkey is more extreme than its southern location would suggest. This is because of the relatively high altitude of much of the country. The plateau has cold winters, often accompanied by high winds. In January Ankara in the west has an average temperature of 31°F (-1°C) while Erzurum in the east, 6,400 feet (1,950 meters) above sea level, has a temperature of 15°F (-9°C). In summer the two places have average temperatures of 73°F (23°C) and 65°F (18°C), respectively. Most of the plateau is dry throughout the year, as the surrounding mountains prevent moisture from the seas from reaching the interior. The average annual precipitation varies from 10 inches (25 centimeters) in the west to more than 20 inches (50 centimeters) in the more mountainous east. In winter snow may lie for three or four months. In the summer the heat in the interior of the plateau can often be extreme and is accompanied by drought.

The coastal regions in general have a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Istanbul has average temperatures of 42°F (6°C) in January and 75°F (24°C) in July, as does Samsun on the Black Sea coast. Both places have about 29 inches (74 centimeters) of precipitation in the year, much of it in winter. The highest levels of precipitation--100 inches (254 centimeters) a year are found along the Black Sea coast close to the Georgian border.

The vegetation of Turkey is limited. In general, much of the country is a region of treeless, barren grasslands and bare hills. The plateau consists mainly of grass. In the spring, flowers such as crocuses and tulips bloom for a short period. The coastal regions have a typically Mediterranean vegetation. It consists of trees such as pines, oaks, cedars, junipers, and chestnuts except where cutting, burning, and grazing have prevented tree growth. Here, in place of trees, scrub vegetation known as maquis appears. The only lowland region with dense forest is the eastern Black Sea coast where precipitation is high.

The soils of Turkey vary widely in type. Much of the country is covered with stony acidic soils that are poor for farming. In hilly areas that have been grazed by livestock, there is serious soil erosion. In the coastal regions a typical Mediterranean soil known as terra rossa is found. It is formed from limestone and is good for farming. In the valleys and plains there are areas of rich alluvial soils, or those deposited by running water.

People and Culture

The population of Turkey is more than 68 million. The earliest known inhabitants were the Hittites, who probably came from Central Asia. Although the present-day Turks are proud of their descent from the Hittites, they are in fact a mixture of other peoples who entered the country at various times such as Persians, Celts, Romans, Arabs, and Seljuk Turks. The Seljuk Turks came from Central Asia, where they had adopted the Muslim faith, and entered Asia Minor in the 11th century. They intermarried with the inhabitants of their conquered territories and lost the racial features of the Central Asian Turkic peoples. Most Turks have fair skins and dark hair, similar to the other peoples of the eastern Mediterranean region.

About 90 percent of the population is made up of Turks. The largest minority group is the Kurds, who probably number about 10 million, or 15 percent of the population. They speak an Iranian language and are separated by political boundaries from other Kurds who live in Iran and Iraq. They have fiercely resisted attempts to turn them into Turks. Other minority groups are much smaller and include Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, Georgians, Circassians, and Jews.

About 99 percent of the population is Muslim, the remainder being Christian or Jewish. Turkey differs from many other Muslim countries because Atatürk, the national leader from 1923 to 1938, attempted to reduce the influence of the religion of Islam in Turkey. He abolished Islamic law and removed the power of the religious leaders. Islam was declared no longer to be the state religion.

About 65 percent of the population lives in cities and towns. The largest city is Istanbul with about 12 million inhabitants. Formerly known as Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires, Istanbul contains many historic buildings of the Christian and Muslim periods. It is situated on the shore of the Bosporus in Europe. Ankara, with more than 5 million inhabitants, has been the capital of Turkey since 1923. It is located on the western plateau. Ankara was selected as the capital instead of Istanbul because its location was more secure from attack from abroad. Other major cities are Izmir, the major port of Asia Minor, and Adana, on the Cilician Plain.

Turkish literature reflects both Middle Eastern and European influences. Until the 19th century the main influence was the religion of Islam, and most writers and poets followed the patterns of Persian and Arabic literatures. In the 1850s, however, writers began to imitate European forms of the novel and poetry. Notable writers of this period were Halid USakligil and Hüseyin Gürpinar and the poet Tevfik Fikret. Rising nationalism was reflected in the works of Ziya Gökalp and ReSat Güntekin. After World War II the trends toward a more original native Turkish literature continued, and such writers as Kemal Tahir and Orhan Kemal described village life in realistic terms. Popular present-day writers include YaSar Kemal, whose works have been translated into English and other languages, Mahmut Makal, and the woman writer Nehziye Meriç.

Because of the Muslim ban on the use of the human figure in art, there was little development of painting and sculpture in Turkey until 1923, when the ban was removed. There is virtually no interest in modern art and little market for it even among educated people. Folk and decorative arts are the most popular forms. Oriental carpets, vases, pottery, and copper articles are all used to decorate the home.

Turkish music reflects its Middle Eastern origin and has strong Arabic and Persian influences. Folk music and folk themes are still popular, though Western influenced music--especially for dancing and in places of entertainment has appeared in recent years.

Children in Turkey must attend school between the ages of 7 and 12. After three years at a secondary school, they may go to a lycèe, which prepares them for the university. There are also technical, agricultural, and commercial secondary schools. Education at state schools is free. There are 27 universities, of which nine were founded in 1982 alone. The oldest and the largest is the University of Istanbul. There are four universities each in Istanbul and in Ankara and two in Izmir. Among other universities are those in Erzurum and Trabzon.

The Latin alphabet was introduced in place of the Arabic alphabet in 1928, which made the writing of Turkish easier. But about 18 percent of the population--mainly in the rural areas--is still unable to read or write.

History

During the 11th century, bands of Turkish horsemen invaded western Asia from Turkestan. They adopted the religion of Islam, but they plundered the Muslim lands in their path. The strongest of these tribes was the Seljuks. They took their name from an early sultan, or chieftain.

The Seljuks established a small state in Anatolia called the sultanate of Rum (Rome). From here they attacked both the Arabs in Syria and Palestine and the Christians of the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor. In 1071 they defeated the army of the Byzantine emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert and took him prisoner. In the same year they conquered Jerusalem and with it the Holy Land.

The Byzantines still held most of Asia Minor and their capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). They appealed for help to the pope in Rome, and for two centuries the Christians of Europe fought the Turks in seven Crusades.After the last Crusade the Seljuks still held their land. Now, however, they were attacked by new invaders from Turkestan.

Ottoman Empire. An outstanding leader among the newcomers was Othman I, or Osman I, who was born in 1258 and died in 1326. He founded the dynasty of Turkish rulers called after him Osmanli, meaning "sons of Osman." In time the English transformed the name to Ottoman.

Othman's son Orkhan (ruled 1326-59) pushed his conquests to the Aegean coast. By peaceful barter he gained a foothold on the European side of the Dardanelles at Gallipoli. He built his army by exacting a tribute of children from his Christian subjects. The strongest and brightest boys were taken from their parents, reared in the Muslim faith, and trained for military or government service. From these slaves Orkhan filled the ranks of his infantry, the Janizaries (also spelled Janissaries). His successors continued this practice. In later centuries no force in Europe could match this hard and ruthless corps.

Orkhan's son Murad I (ruled 1359-89) conquered Thrace and moved his capital to Adrianople. Mohammed II (ruled 1451-81) captured Constantinople in 1453 and made it the capital. During Selim's reign from 1512 to 1520, the Ottomans moved eastward and southward. At Mecca in Arabia, the shrine of the Muslim world, Selim took the title caliph--ruler of all Muslims. Henceforth the Turkish sultan was the spiritual head of the entire Muslim world.

Under Süleyman I the Magnificent (ruled 1520-66) the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent, but the sultans who followed Süleyman were weak and dissolute. In 1571 the combined fleets of Venice, Spain, and the Papal States defeated the Turks in the great naval battle of Lepanto off the coast of Greece. This victory dispelled the legend of the "invincible Turk." Russia annexed the Crimea in 1783. In 1821 Greece began its long fight for freedom. The Janizaries revolted in 1826, and the sultan abolished the famous corps after slaying thousands.

Russia waged war against the Turks in 1806 and again in 1828 and 1829, winning the Caucasus and the northeastern coast of the Black Sea. Russia, now master of the Black Sea, was determined to control its outlet. Great Britain, France, and Sardinia helped Turkey in the Crimean War of 1854 to 1856 and blocked Russia .The Russo-Turkish war of 1877 and 1878 brought Russia almost to Constantinople. Turkey was forced to sign the harsh Treaty of San Stefano, which would have ended its rule in Europe. The Western powers, however, quickly called the Congress of Berlin in 1878 and once more revived the failing Ottoman Empire

By the end of the 19th century, the sultan's government was tottering. To get money, the sultan gave special rights to foreigners in Turkey--the so-called capitulations. Railways, mines, banks, and ports fell into the hands of foreign capitalists.

Sultan Abdülhamid II (ruled 1876-1909) developed strong ties with Germany. German engineers began work on a railway across Turkey that was to link Berlin with Baghdad and the Persian Gulf. Turkey sided with Germany in World War I and succeeded in holding the straits and Constantinople. But in the end Turkey was defeated

In 1920 the sultan's representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres, which would have confined Turkey to the Anatolian Plateau. The Aegean and Mediterranean coasts were assigned to Greece and Italy. Armenia was to be independent.

Turkish Republic under Atatürk. Resentment flamed high in Turkey. A new government sprang up at Ankara in Anatolia, led by the dynamic Mustafa Kemal, an army officer. Kemal first subjugated Armenia, then turned westward and drove the Greek forces from Smyrna. The sultan, Mohammed VI, fled from Constantinople.

In July 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne repudiated the Treaty of Sèvres. On Oct. 29, 1923, Turkey was proclaimed a republic with Kemal as president. Kemal in 1924 gave Turkey a liberal democratic constitution. Later in the same year, however, he announced that he would rule as a dictator.

Kemal abolished the office of caliph, suppressed religious orders, and closed religious schools and law courts. He forbade men to wear the fez. He encouraged women to cast off their face veils, gave them equal rights before the law, and made polygamy illegal. He abolished titles of nobility--pasha, bey, and effendi--and ordered Turks to take family names, which they had not had before. For himself he chose the name Atatürk, meaning "father of the Turks.

Atatürk entered into friendly relations with the Soviet Union and established state socialism. In 1934 he launched a five-year development plan with machines and financial aid from the Soviets. He enforced a strict ban, however, on the Communist party. When he died in 1938, the assembly elected his prime minister and friend, Ismet Inönü, president.

 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

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